On behalf of our Trustees, our faculty, our distinguished alumni, our families, and our many friends of Columbia University, it is my very, very great pleasure to welcome all of you gathered here today—and, notably, for the first IN PERSON commencement in three years. I am also delighted to welcome the tens of thousands of you who are joining us virtually, a way of being together we have come to know so intimately. We are all here to continue our 268-year tradition of celebrating the significant achievements of our graduates, representing seventeen schools, along with our affiliate institutions of Teachers College and Barnard.

So, I cannot imagine beginning my remarks to you in any other way than by acknowledging the extraordinary context, really the historical context, in which you have been students at Columbia and in which you have arrived at this remarkable milestone in your lives. This is always a magnificent ceremony—striking in this grand academic setting, in the parade of colors and in the joyful faces.Satisfying the requirements for a Columbia degree is never easy; the demands are as rigorous as any in the world. So, you should, indeed, be very proud. We, certainly, are of you. But, as much as we, your faculty, admire you and are proud of what you have achieved, nothing can compare to the pride of your family and friends who have supported you all along the way. Please take this opportunity to thank them.Under ordinary conditions, we justifiably celebrate the sheer labor and talents that have brought you to this point. But your Columbia journey has been nothing like any I have ever witnessed. I can barely begin to touch the surface of the times: A once-in-a-century pandemic; life-jarring climate-induced catastrophes jolting us into a state-of-emergency mindset; a world flirting dangerously with authoritarianism, repressing human rights and yielding naked aggression to a degree not seen since the era leading up to the Second World War; violent acts of racism that add still another horrible chapter in the struggles of Black Americans to overcome invidious discrimination, made worse by a refusal of many citizens even to acknowledge the historical and ongoing truths of this injustice; and of other innocent groups, suffering other injustices. Together these forces seem biblical, in scope and in gravity. As I recite these multiple and intersecting plagues of our time, I know each one of us is privately taking stock of how these events—singly or altogether—have affected our own lives and the lives of those close to us. Collectively, we can be certain that many among us have suffered deeply; and not one of us has been untouched. To all of you, therefore, in recognition of the many challenges you have had to endure and overcome, we say with more conviction and more respect than ever before, Congratulations to the Class of 2022.

We have, it seems, entered what we might call the Age of Disinformation.

My remarks to you this morning are about matters that are dear to my heart (and I hope dear to yours, as well)—as they involve free speech, deep knowledge and expertise, universities and their role in making a good society and the responsibilities we all bear, especially in these momentous times, to think clearly and to think well, no matter what we are doing. It is common for me on these occasions to speak about the glorious principles of freedom of expression and its offspring of academic freedom. But on this day what concerns me is a different problem—not of censorship, but instead of an over-abundance, an excess, an abuse of freely expressed but deeply misguided speech that threatens a moral, ethical, just, wise, and sane world. I’m concerned about the increasingly pervasive misuse of free speech.Let me start with what is clear and critically important to recognize—namely, that the modern phenomenon of systematic campaigns of disinformation is spawning and amplifying the very crises I noted at the outset. Denials of the effectiveness of vaccines, of climate science, of election integrity, of the past and ongoing effects of discrimination—these and so many other malicious efforts at misinformation are polluting our collective mind. We are all very much aware that the great advancement of our age, the Internet, is being used to augment the malign effectiveness of these campaigns, and probably to a degree never encountered before in human societies. Just a few decades ago a crackpot theory or idea had a lot of hard work ahead in order to break into the general population where it could use anger and paranoia to take root. Now it happens in seconds. We have, it seems, entered what we might call the Age of Disinformation.This is no small matter. From a First Amendment standpoint, I can tell you that this poses urgent questions. Over the course of the last century, and especially in the last half century, we have created the most speech-protective society in the world—indeed, in human history. At its core, there is a simple premise: Bad speech, including falsehoods and lies, is better remedied by opportunities for more speech rather than by government intervention. This means we live in a wilderness of human thoughts and ideas, with the hope that we might become more intellectually self-reliant and capable of tolerance.We know by nature we are not perfect. We know there is a natural human impulse to latch onto beliefs, to group with others who believe similarly and will provide mutual reinforcement of our rightness, which then manifests itself in a concerted drive to convert or stop those who disagree, thus producing a cycle of escalating intolerance. We are not born believing in the First Amendment. Indeed, openness of mind is counter-intuitive; it must be learned both in principle and in lived experience, and our worst impulses that we constantly have to live with mean it will always be in jeopardy. Which is why we had to create a hard-to-change constitutional freedom and then take it to an extreme, as a lesson in life in tolerance. But the profound question before us today is: Does this basic premise, does all of this still hold true?

Deliberate disinformation and propaganda also, and more importantly, undermine the very idea of deep knowledge and expertise itself.

Like any fundamental principle, however, the First Amendment is far more complex than this little précis presents, and we have allowed it to adjust to new circumstances in the past. It is worth noting that the last new technology of communication—namely, broadcast media—was regulated in the public interest precisely in order to deal with many of the very same dangers we now see with social media and related platforms on the Internet. This stands as a potential model for us now. And that is where the debate is taking place.But let’s return to understanding the problems we are facing and the gravity of the threats. There is more than simply the circulation of particular falsehoods. Deliberate disinformation and propaganda also, and more importantly, undermine the very idea of deep knowledge and expertise itself. Disinformation is now powering a particularly pungent form of populism in which experts are discredited, even ridiculed, and an arrogance of feeling one can believe whatever one wants to believe is settling in and becoming normal. This attitude is in direct conflict with universities, because we are society’s primary institutions for preserving and advancing what humanity has struggled to learn over the millennia. Over the past several years, our own faculty have been targets of this abuse.But the dangers are even worse: Attacking expertise is a common tool of fascism and authoritarian regimes. When we discredit a particular piece of knowledge, we make it harder to think well. We undermine the essential task of a self-determining society to draw on the vast body of information and thought painfully developed over centuries and held safely within our academic institutions and across our cultural institutions and professions. Falsehoods today are increasingly accompanied by a rejection of a necessary humility about the limits of our knowledge and of a basic trust in others who have devoted their lives and careers to understand deeply an important subject.So, the stakes are, indeed, very high, and we, universities, along with the democracy as a whole, are vulnerable to these campaigns and new conditions. The issue is then what comes next. Let us assume that the First Amendment will be rethought. It is time to ask: How can we think about all of this outside the First Amendment?

“Good thinking” is a critical goal of any individual or society. The rejection of “bad thinking”—however difficult it is to define precisely—is a necessary condition of that.

There is, of course, much to say about this, but I have two key points: One is not to let free speech stand in the way of condemning disinformation and doing all we can to stop it; the other is to think of universities as the models for society and how to think.It is increasingly dangerous to assume, as many long have, that the strong protections afforded falsehoods under the First Amendment necessarily implies that it is wrong to do what we can to stop falsehoods and disinformation generally. Is “free speech” an “absolute,” as some would have it, and should we, accordingly, refrain from doing anything to stop bad speech in ways beyond official censorship? My answer to that is: Not for a second should we think that way. That way lies madness and the loss of a well-educated society.“Good thinking” is a critical goal of any individual or society. The rejection of “bad thinking”—however difficult it is to define precisely—is a necessary condition of that.Indeed, this is what we call education—the development of the human capacity to think well—with reason from knowledge, and with respect for facts and a reasonable openness to relevant ideas and opinions. This is not easy, to be sure, which is why we devote so many years to arrive at where you are now.In fact, the very human impulses noted at the outset that lead us to improperly censor others also lead us to think badly by not rejecting what we should. Not to put too fine a point on it, but, if a student receives an F for a lazy paper filled with falsehoods, it will not do the student any good to proclaim that the paper should not be penalized because it was an exercise in freedom of speech. “Free speech” is not an end in itself but a thumb on the scale in a particular direction. It would make no sense to order our lives entirely in that direction. Keep it always in mind, of course, but do not allow it to take precedence over other principles we value—in the case of the failing paper, the importance of sharp thinking and quality writing.

Whenever I let my mind try to take in the full breadth of what happens here—in laboratories, in clinics, in libraries, in studies, in classrooms, and work all over the planet—I am exhilarated.

This brings me, lastly, to the importance of institutions in society—institutions such as universities, the press, and other civic institutions. We need to recognize that these institutions are designed to help organize our discussions, not just about politics but, really, about everything. Those of us here today have been incredibly fortunate to be part of this great university. Whenever I let my mind try to take in the full breadth of what happens here—in laboratories, in clinics, in libraries, in studies, in classrooms, and work all over the planet—I am exhilarated. But I am also filled with humility because I know so little of all that is known here, and at similar institutions. To come to a university such as Columbia is to learn to be humble; to realize how little you know and always will.I love being president (I recommend the job highly!), not least because I get to know just a little bit more of that amazing whole. In this time of our many trials and crises, as we reap the benefits of universities, we need to do all we can to protect them. They are not perfect, for sure. I feel strongly, for example, that we need to make the boundaries between us and the rest of the world more permeable and more connected in the betterment of human society and the world. This mission, which I call the Fourth Purpose of the University—in addition to teaching and research and service—might help people more broadly feel more respectful of what we have to offer.But another reason I love being president of Columbia is the opportunity to be in your midst. As students in our classrooms and laboratories, you are what makes academic life worth living. We may be daunted by this troubled moment in history, but I am most certainly convinced, to the core of my being, that every one of you in your own way will help to solve these problems and to heal the world. You have demonstrated that human capacity to think well, and I know you will deploy it in meaningful and inspiring ways. Most of all, you will have the proper degree of humility that a truly great education instills.On this day, we celebrate you, all that you have accomplished, and the institution that nurtures us, especially in this new historical era we have entered.Congratulations to you, Class of 2022.

我謹代表哥倫比亞大學的校董、教員、校友、家人和朋友們，非常高興地歡迎你們聚集在這裡，迎來三年來首次的線下畢業典禮。我也很高興地歡迎成千上萬的觀眾們透過線上的方式加入我們。

此刻，我們在這裡延續哥倫比亞大學268年的傳統，慶祝17個學院和2個附屬學院的畢業生取得重要成就。

我無法想象用其他方式開始我的演講。你們在如此特殊的背景下，來到哥倫比亞大學求學，並且實現了生命中的這個非凡里程碑。

畢業典禮永遠是一個盛大的儀式，在這宏偉的學術氛圍裡，到處是五彩的顏色和歡樂的笑臉。達到哥倫比亞大學的學位要求從不是一件易事。這裡有著和世界上其他學府一樣嚴格的要求。你應該為自己感到驕傲，我們也欽佩你們，為你們所取得的成績感到自豪。

不過沒有什麼能與此刻你們家人、朋友心中的驕傲相比。他們支援著你們一路走到今天。

我們“習以為常”慶祝著你們的辛勤付出和才華，但你們在哥倫比亞大學的求學之旅與我所見過的全然不同。

我們可以確定，我們當中的許多人都深受影響。我們每個人都被觸動了。因此，在明白你們必須忍受和克服的諸多挑戰後，我們更堅定、更尊敬地對你們說，祝賀你們，2022屆的畢業生們。

接下來我的演講關乎我最關心的幾個議題，我希望這些議題對你來說也同樣重要：言論自由，深刻的學識和專業知識，大學及其在建設一個良好社會中的作用，以及我們在這段重要時期肩負的責任——如何清晰、全面地思考。

我常常在這樣的場合談論言論自由和因其衍生的學術自由的光輝。但今天，我擔心的是另一個問題——不是審查制度，而是那些過度地濫用自由表達而產生的大量嚴重誤導的言論，這些言論威脅著我們道德、倫理、公正、明智和理智的世界。我擔心濫用言論自由的現象越來越普遍。首先，我們必須認識到一個明確的、至關重要的問題，如今系統的造謠行徑正在滋生和放大我在開篇就指出的危機。否認疫苗的有效性、否認氣候科學、否認選舉的公正性、否認歧視對過去和現在造成的影響，這些以及如此多的其他惡意傳播錯誤資訊的行為正在侵害我們的思想。

我們都非常清楚，網際網路作為我們這個時代巨大的進步，正在被用來擴大這些危害行徑的影響，而且可能達到了人類社會從未遇到過的程度。就在幾十年前，一個瘋狂的理論或想法還需花費許多的精力才能走近普通群眾並利用憤怒和偏執紮根。而如今，這件事只需要幾秒鐘就能完成。我們似乎進入了一個可以稱之為虛假資訊的時代。這不是小事。從第一修正案的角度來看，我可以告訴你，這提出了一系列緊迫的問題。

在過去的一個世紀裡，特別是在過去的半個世紀裡，我們創造了世界上甚至是人類歷史上最能保護言論的社會。其核心是一個簡單的前提——包括謊言和謬誤在內的糟糕言論，透過更多的言論機會加以補救，而不是依靠政府的干預。這意味著我們生活在人類思想的荒野中，期望我們能在智力上更加自立、能力上更加寬容。我們天生就知道我們並不完美。我們知道，人類有一種自然的衝動就是抓住信仰，與有相似信仰的人聚集在一起，從而相互加強我們的正直，繼而形成一致的動力去改變或阻止那些持不同意見的人，由此產生一個不斷升級的不寬容迴圈。我們並非生來就相信第一修正案。事實上，思想的開放是違反直覺的。我們只有在規則和生活的經驗中才能學會思想開放，而我們不得不與之共存的最壞的衝動也將變得岌岌可危，這就是為什麼我們必須建立一個很難改變的憲法自由，把它發揮到極致。但今天擺在我們面前的深刻問題是，這個基本前提是否仍然成立。然而，就像任何其他的根本原則一樣，第一修正案遠比這些複雜得多，我們在過去已經允許它適應新的情況。值得注意的是，廣播媒體作為上一代新興通訊技術，正是為了應對我們現在在社交媒體和網際網路平臺上看到的許多問題，才建立在公眾利益的基礎上進行監管的。這對我們來說是一個潛在的模式，也是爭議開始的地方。

讓我們回到我們正在面臨的問題以及這些威脅的嚴重性。這不僅只是特定謊言的傳播，蓄意的虛假資訊和宣傳煽動正在嚴重削弱深厚學問和專業知識本身的理念。虛假資訊鼓吹起了強烈的民粹主義，這使得專家常常名譽掃地甚至被公然取笑，也讓那種自以為然、剛愎自用的傲慢態度愈演愈烈併成為常態。這種態度與大學格格不入，因為我們是社會中儲存和推進人類幾千年來奮鬥和學習成果的主要機構。在過去的幾年裡，我們的學院一直是虛假宣傳濫用的目標。更危險的是，攻擊專業人員、知識分子是法西斯主義和專制政權的常用手段。當我們詆譭某項特定知識時，仔細思考就變得更加困難。我們破壞了一個自決社會利用大量已知資訊和思想進行決策的基本任務，這些資訊和思想是數百年來歷經艱難發展出來的，並安全地儲存在我們的學術機構、文化機構和職業機構中。今天的謊言使人們對人類知識的侷限性缺乏必要的謙遜，對那些終其一生鑽研並深刻理解重要主題的專業人員缺乏基本信任。茲事體大，我們大學以及整個民主國家都容易受到這些行為和新情況的影響。問題是接下來會發生什麼？讓我們假設，第一修正案將被重新考慮。是時候去詢問沒有了第一修正案，我們該如何思考所有這些？這當然會引發很多想法，但我想提出兩個關鍵點。

一是不要讓言論自由阻止對虛假資訊的譴責並盡我們所能阻止它。二是將大學視為社會以及思想的典範。越來越多的人認為，第一修正案為虛假資訊提供了強有力的保護，即盡我們所能去阻止謊言和虛假資訊是錯誤的，這種假設是非常危險的。一個人擁有絕對的言論自由嗎？是否除了官方審查，我們不能採取任何措施來阻止不良言論？我的回答是絕對不應該這樣想。如此發展，我們就會陷入瘋狂並失去一個受到良好教育的社會。良好的思維至關重要，應該是任何個人或社會的目標。拒絕錯誤的想法，無論多麼難以準確定義，都是擁有良好思維的必要條件。這就是我們所說的教育，即培養人類良好的思考能力，從知識中推理，尊重事實，對相關思想和觀點保持合理的開放態度。這確實並不容易。這就是為什麼我們花了這麼多年培養你們到今天的水平。

事實上，我們在一開始就注意到，正是人性中的衝動讓我們不能恰當的感知他人，也讓我們因為無法拒絕我們應該做的事情而感到自責。舉個例子，如果一個學生因為一篇充滿謊言的懶惰論文被評為不合格，那麼宣稱該論文是一篇言論自由的練習因而不應該受到懲罰，對學生沒有任何好處。言論自由本身並不是目的，而是特定方向上的一個評估原則，完全朝那個方向安排我們的生活是沒有意義的，我們要牢記言論自由的原則，但不要讓它超越我們重視的其他原則。在剛才那個失敗論文的例子中，敏銳的思維和高質量的寫作是更加重要的。

最後，我想談一下機構在社會中的重要性。我們需要認識到，大學、新聞界和民間組織等機構的設立是為了幫助我們進行討論，不僅關於政治，而是關於一切。今天在座的我們非常幸運能夠成為這所偉大學府的一員。每當我嘗試全面瞭解這裡發生的一切——在實驗室、臨床、圖書館、教室——和全球各地的工作時，我都會感到振奮。但我也感到謙遜，因為我對這裡及類似機構所知道的一切知之甚少。來到像哥倫比亞大學這樣的機構，就是要學會謙虛，意識到你知道的其實很少。

我熱愛校長這個職位，我也強烈推薦這份工作，尤其是因為我對這個優秀的集體能有更多的瞭解。在這個充滿考驗和危機的時刻，當我們從大學中獲益時，我們需要盡我們所能來保護這些收穫。它們肯定不是完美的。例如，我強烈認為，大學需要與世界更交匯，聯絡更緊密，從而進一步改善人類社會。我把它稱之為大學除教學、研究和服務外的第四個使命，它會使人們更廣泛地尊重我們所提供的知識。我喜歡擔任哥大校長的另一個原因是我有機會走到你們中間，是你們讓學術生活變得有價值。儘管我們可能因歷史上這個令人不安的時刻感到信心不足，但我內心堅信，你們每個人都將以自己的方式幫助解決這些問題並治癒世界。你們已經展現了思考的能力，我知道你們會以有意義和鼓舞人心的方式去運用它。最重要的是，你將擁有真正偉大的教育所培養的適度謙遜。

今天，我們慶祝你們所取得的成就。在這個新的歷史時代，我們也慶祝這所大學對我們的培養。

祝賀你們，2022屆畢業生！