判例譯析|“雙邊市場理論”在美國最高法反壟斷案件中的首次使用:俄亥俄州訴美國運通公司案

譯者 | 彭   懿 加州大學洛杉磯分校碩士
一審 | 李梓源 英國布里斯托大學碩士
二審 | 王槐語 加州大學伯克利分校碩士
編輯 | 林靖珊 中國政法大學碩士
        蘇   桐 華中科技大學本科
責編 | 林靖珊 中國政法大學碩士
、案情概述
Amex, Visa, MasterCard, and Discover are the four dominant participants in the credit-card market. Visa, which is by far the largest, has 45% of the market as measured by transaction volume.3 Amex and MasterCard trail with 26.4% and 23.3%, respectively, while Discover has just 5.3% of the market.
美國American Express(下稱“AmEx”),Visa,MasterCard和Discover是美國信用卡市場的四大主要參與者。按交易量計算,Visa所佔有的市場份額最大,約45%;Amex,MasterCard和Discover分別佔26.4%,23.3%,和5.3%的市場份額。
To avoid higher fees, merchants sometimes attempt to dissuade cardholders from using Amex cards at the point of sale — a practice known as “steering.” Amex places antisteering provisions in its contracts with merchants to combat this.
AmEx與商戶簽訂的合同中,存在“反引導條款”(Antisteering Provision)。該條款禁止商戶引導持卡人(消費者)使用其他手續費較低的信用卡,以規避AmEx的較高費用。
譯者總結
換言之,這一條款限制商戶在交易過程中表達對其他信用卡的偏好(例如告訴消費者“使用Visa或MasterCard手續費更低”),要求商戶只提供AmEx一項支付方式,從而迫使商戶與消費者使用 AmEx 卡完成交易,而非商戶可能更願意接受的、交易手續費較低的其他信用卡。
In October 2010, the United States and several States (collectively, plaintiffs) sued Amex, claiming that its antisteering provisions violate §1 of the Sherman Act, 26 Stat. 209, as amended, 15 U. S. C. §1.5
2010年10月,本案原告(美國司法部及俄亥俄州)起訴AmEx,指控其反引導條款違反了《謝爾曼反壟斷法》(Sherman Antitrust Act)第1條。
After a 7-week trial, the District Court agreed that Amex’s antisteering provisions violate §1. United States v. American Express Co., 88 F. Supp. 3d 143, 151–152 (EDNY 2015). It found that the credit-card market should be treated as two separate markets—one for merchants and one for cardholders. See id., at 171–175.
經7周的審理,地方法院認為AmEx的反引導條款違反了《謝爾曼反壟斷法》第1條。該院認為,信用卡市場應該被視為兩個獨立的市場——一個面向商戶,一個面向持卡人。
(圖片源自網路)
Evaluating the effects on the merchant side of the market, the District Court found that Amex’s antisteering provisions are anticompetitive because they result in higher merchant fees.
地方法院評估了反引導條款對面向商戶市場的影響,發現AmEx的反引導條款產生了反競爭效果,因為它使得商戶支付更高的費用。
The Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit reversed. United States v. American Express Co., 838 F. 3d 179, 184 (2016). It concluded that the credit-card market is one market, not two. Id., at 196–200. Evaluating the creditcard market as a whole, the Second Circuit concluded that Amex’s antisteering provisions were not anticompetitive and did not violate §1. See id., at 200–206.
後AmEx對判決提出上訴,美國第二巡迴上訴法院推翻了初審判決,基於“信用卡市場是一個統一市場,而非兩個獨立市場”的認定,認為該條款不違反《謝爾曼反壟斷法》。(原告不服第二巡迴法院的裁定,向美國最高法院提起上訴。)
二、爭議焦點
本案的核心爭議焦點是AmEx的反引導條款是否違反了《謝爾曼反壟斷法》第1條。
三、判決結果
最高法院受理了此案,並2018年做出最終裁決,維持第二巡迴上訴法院的判決,裁定AmEx的反引導條款不違反聯邦反壟斷法。
四、判決理由
(一) 相關市場的界定:作為雙邊市場的信用卡市場
譯者總結
對於信用卡市場,原告和地區法院主張應分為兩個獨立的市場(商戶市場和持卡人市場),本案的相關市場應為商戶市場。然而,美國最高法院則認為,信用卡市場應被認定為一個統一的雙邊市場(two-sided market)。
Two-sided platforms differ from traditional markets in important ways. Most relevant here, two-sided platforms often exhibit what economists call “indirect network effects.” Indirect network effects exist where the value of the two-sided platform to one group of participants depends on how many members of a different group participate.
美國最高法院法院首先就雙邊市場和傳統市場的區別進行了對比。雙邊市場區別於傳統市場,存在明顯的間接網路效應(indirect network effect),即平臺一方的參與者數量,決定了平臺對於另一方的價值。
A credit card, for example, is more valuable to cardholders when more merchants accept it, and is more valuable to merchants when more cardholders use it. To ensure sufficient participation, two-sided platforms must be sensitive to the prices that they charge each side.
例如,更多商戶接受信用卡支付時,持卡人受益;反之亦然,更多持卡人使用信用卡時,商戶也因此受益。為最大化交易量,信用卡公司在定價時需要同時考慮商戶和持卡人兩方,而不能僅關注某一方。
Because they cannot make a sale unless both sides of the platform simultaneously agree to use their services, two-sided transaction platforms exhibit more pronounced indirect network effects and interconnected pricing and demand. Transaction platforms are thus better understood as supplying only one product—transactions.
上訴法院和最高法院認為,信用卡市場是一個統一的雙邊市場,其原因在於信用卡交易必須在商戶和持卡人同時使用信用卡服務時才能完成,表現出更明顯的間接網路效應和相互關聯的定價和需求。因此,信用卡市場應被理解為“只提供一種產品”——交易(transaction)。
In the credit-card market, these transactions are jointly consumed by a cardholder, who uses the payment card to make a transaction, and a merchant, who accepts the payment card as a method of payment.'"
在信用卡市場中,這些交易由持卡人(使用支付卡進行交易)和商戶(接受支付卡作為支付方式)共同完成。
譯者總結
由於信用卡市場展現出了明顯的間接網路效應,其應被視為提供“交易”作為產品的雙邊市場。
(二) 反競爭效果的認定:在雙邊市場中,判斷案涉條款是否存在反競爭效果,應綜合考量雙邊的損益
譯者總結
如前所述,將信用卡市場認定為雙邊市場,影響了對AmEx反引導條款的反壟斷分析。
The plaintiffs have not carried their burden to prove anticompetitive effects in the relevant market. The plaintiffs stake their entire case on proving that Amex’s agreements increase merchant fees. We find this argument unpersuasive. As an initial matter, the plaintiffs’ argument about merchant fees wrongly focuses on only one side of the two sided credit-card market.
美國最高法院認為,原告未能成功證明案涉條款的反競爭效果,因其錯誤地僅觀察雙邊市場的一側(本案中的商戶市場),而只證明了案涉條款對商戶一方費用的增加。
As explained, the credit-card market must be defined to include both merchants and cardholders. Focusing on merchant fees alone misses the mark because the product that credit-card companies sell is transactions, not services to merchants, and the competitive effects of a restraint on transactions cannot be judged by looking at merchants alone.
因為信用卡公司銷售的產品是“交易”,而不是向商戶提供的服務,反競爭效果不能僅從商戶的角度來判斷。原告無法僅以商戶手續費的增加,來證明反引導條款的反競爭效果。因此,應綜合考慮該行為對商戶市場和持卡人市場的影響。
譯者總結
就持卡人市場而言,AmEx的反引導條款和其配套的商業模式,為持卡人提供了實質性利益。
Visa and MasterCard—two of the major players in the credit-card market—have significant structural advantages over Amex. Amex competes with them by using a different business model, which focuses on cardholder spending rather than cardholder lending. To encourage cardholder spending, Amex provides better rewards than the other credit-card companies. Amex must continually invest in its cardholder rewards program to maintain its cardholders’ loyalty. But to fund those investments, it must charge merchants higher fees than its rivals.
與AmEx相比,競爭對手Visa和MasterCard具有較大的結構性優勢。為了與它們競爭,AmEx採取了一種更側重於持卡人消費,而非借貸的不同商業模式。因此,AmEx需向商戶收取比競爭對手更高的手續費,以投資於持卡人消費獎勵計劃,從而維護使用者忠誠度。持卡人在使用AmEx消費時所能獲得的獎勵,將優於其他信用卡公司所提供的獎勵。
On the other side of the market, Amex uses its higher merchant fees to offer its cardholders a more robust rewards program, which is necessary to maintain cardholder loyalty and encourage the level of spending that makes Amex valuable to merchants. That Amex allocates prices between merchants and cardholders differently from Visa and MasterCard is simply not evidence that it wields market power to achieve anticompetitive ends.
就商戶市場而言,這一商業模式也為其增加了福利。因AmEx使用較高的商戶手續費為持卡人提供更多獎勵,增加了使用者忠誠度,從而刺激持卡人使用AmEx在商戶處消費;這一過程實質上也增加了AmEx對商戶的價值。法院認為,反引導條款所產生的高額商戶費用,只是AmEx與競爭對手“在商戶和持卡人之間分配價格的方式”不同,並不能證明它利用市場力量來達到反競爭的目的。
(圖片源自網路)
The plaintiffs also failed to prove that Amex’s antisteering provisions have stifled competition among credit-card companies. To the contrary, while these agreements have been in place, the credit-card market experienced expanding output and improved quality. Amex’s business model spurred Visa and MasterCard to offer new premium card categories with higher rewards. And it has increased the availability of card services, including free banking and card-payment services for low-income customers who otherwise would not be served.
此外,案涉條款也沒有抑制AmEx與其競爭對手之間的競爭。相反,信用卡市場的產量不斷擴大,質量也有所提高。AmEx的商業模式促使Visa和MasterCard推出獎勵更高的新高階卡類別。它還增加了信用卡服務的可用性,包括為低收入客戶提供免費銀行和信用卡支付服務,否則這些客戶將得不到服務。
譯者總結
綜合考慮案涉條款對商戶、持卡人和其他信用卡公司的影響,美國最高法院認為該條款並不違反《謝爾曼反壟斷法》第1條。
五、案例評析
本案是美國最高法院首次在反壟斷案件中提出並使用“雙邊市場理論”。該理論認為,信用卡公司為商戶和持卡人提供服務,兩者在交易過程中相互依賴,因此需要綜合分析這兩方面的價格和影響。信用卡公司透過提高商戶費用,為持卡人提供更好的獎勵計劃,最終提升了整體交易量和市場競爭力,相關的行為並不會產生反競爭效果。
然而,“雙邊市場理論”是否完全適用於本案值得商榷。儘管持卡人獲得了更多獎勵,但商戶承擔的高額費用可能無法直接傳導至消費者,尤其是當市場缺乏足夠的競爭壓力迫使商戶降低商品價格時。法院對雙邊市場理論的應用過於樂觀,可能忽視了商戶實際承受的負擔以及反引導條款對商戶自由選擇的限制。
原文連結:
https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/17pdf/16-1454_5h26.pdf

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