法律翻譯|《美國刑事司法雜誌》第48卷第5期

譯者 | 向詩睿北京大學法律碩士（非法學）&J.D.

一審 | 富揚北京師範大學法律碩士

二審 | 汪晨涵復旦大學法律碩士

編輯 | 吳萌上海外國語大學法律碩士

扎恩哈爾新疆農業大學

責編 | Susan 中國政法大學法學碩士

American Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 48, Number 5 | 2023

《美國刑事司法雜誌》第48卷第5期

Long-Term Health and Economic Consequences Associated with Being Processed Through the Criminal Justice System for Males

接受刑事司法系統處理對男性造成的長期健康和經濟後果

Dzhansarayeva Rima, Maral Akbolatova, Tlepbergenov Orynbasar, Jangabulova Arailym & Kevin M. Beaver

There has been a great deal of scholarship examining the outcomes associated with being processed through the criminal justice system. Much of this research has focused on legal outcomes, such as recidivism, but research has also centered on extralegal outcomes, including measures of health and economics. The current study added to this body of research by examining whether contact with the criminal justice system (i.e., arrest, conviction, and incarceration) was associated with health problems, suicidal ideation, economic disadvantage, and poverty in adulthood for males.

已有大量學術研究探討了接受刑事司法系統處理產生的後果。這些研究大多集中於法律意義上後果，如重新犯罪，但也有研究集中於法律意義之外的後果，如健康和經濟指標。近期的研究在上述研究的基礎之上，進一步探究了與刑事司法系統的接觸（即逮捕、定罪和監禁）是否與男性成年後的健康問題、自殺傾向、經濟劣勢和貧困有關。

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The analyses controlled for preexisting criminogenic measures (e.g., low self-control, delinquent peers, neighborhood disadvantage) and for adolescent delinquent involvement. Data drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) were analyzed. The results revealed that all of the criminal justice system measures were statistically significant predictors of the health and economic outcomes even after accounting for preexisting criminogenic traits and delinquent behavior.

本研究分析控制了先前存在的犯罪因素（如低自控力、犯罪同伴、鄰里劣勢）以及青少年犯罪參與情況。分析的資料來自全國青少年到成人健康縱向研究（Add Health）。結果表明，即使考慮到先前存在的犯罪特徵和犯罪行為，所有刑事司法系統測量指標對健康和經濟結果的預測都具有統計學意義。

The Only Thing Constant is Change: Temporal Analyses of Racial/Ethnic Sentencing Disparities

唯一不變的就是變化：種族/民族量刑差異的時間趨勢分析

Bryan Holmes & Ben Feldmeyer

Over the last several decades, federal courts have devoted considerable effort towards improving fairness in sentencing. Despite these efforts, research has consistently shown that racial/ethnic minority defendants receive harsher sentences than similarly situated White defendants. While a large body of research has detected these racial/ethnic disparities, relatively few studies have examined how they have changed over time in light of the different legal, societal, and priority changes in federal criminal courts (and the United States more broadly). Using 22 years of federal sentencing data, the current study assesses trends in Black-White and Hispanic-White sentencing disparities (net of factors relevant to sentencing).

在過去的幾十年中，聯邦法院為提高量刑的公平性做出了大量的努力。儘管如此，研究表明，與情況類似的白人被告相比，少數種族/族裔被告受到的判決更為嚴厲。儘管已有大量研究注意到了這種種族/族裔間的不平等，但很少有研究關注這些差異是如何隨著聯邦刑事法院（和整個美國）的法律、社會和優先順序變化而隨時間變化的。本研究利用 22 年的聯邦量刑資料，評估了黑人-白人和西班牙裔-白人量刑差異的趨勢（扣除量刑相關因素）。

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Results suggest that trends in racial/ethnic sentencing disparities differ by the dependent variable examined. At incarceration, Black and Hispanic disadvantages have been largely time stable. However, racial/ethnic effects on sentence length have changed over time, diminishing in early years before re-aggravating in later years. Findings suggest that the movement towards racial/ethnic equity in sentencing has been slower than many might hope, with setbacks along the way. The re-emergence of racial/ethnic disadvantages indicates the need for a renewed focus towards reducing racial/ethnic disparities and creating greater egalitarianism in sentencing.

結果表明，種族/族裔量刑差異的趨勢因所考察的因變數而異。在入獄時，黑人和西班牙裔的劣勢地位基本保持穩定。然而，種族/族裔對刑期的影響隨著時間推移而有所變化。在早年有所減弱，而後又重新加劇。研究結果表明，在量刑方面實現種族/族裔公平的程序比許多人希望的要慢，一路上都有挫折。種族/民族劣勢的再次出現表明，有必要重新關注減少種族/民族差異，在量刑中創造更大的平等性。

Organizational and Coalition Strategies for Youth Violence Prevention: A Longitudinal Mixed-Methods Study

預防青少年暴力的組織和聯盟策略：一項混合方法縱向研究

Douglas D. Perkins, Nikolay L. Mihaylov & Kimberly D. Bess

This longitudinal study identifies espoused change orientations and actual youth violence prevention (YVP) practices over five years by 99 public and nonprofit organizations in one city. Annual key informant interviews provided both qualitative and quantitative data, including organizational collaborative network data. Data were also obtained on participation in a citywide YVP coalition, juvenile arrests and court referrals. On average, organizations both in and outside the coalition adopted a problem-focused as often as a strengths-based change orientation, and were only marginally more oriented toward empowering community members than professionals and changing communities than individual youth. Most surprisingly, YVP coalition members adopted more of a tertiary (reactive/rehabilitative) than primary prevention orientation compared to nonmembers.

這項縱向研究透過一個城市中99家公共及非營利組織，五年內追蹤了對於青少年暴力預防（youth violence prevention，簡稱YVP）變革導向和實際做法的支援情況。透過年度關鍵資訊提供者訪談，我們收集了定性和定量資料，包括組織間的合作網路資訊。此外，我們還獲得了關於參與全市範圍的YVP聯盟、青少年逮捕和法院轉介的資料。平均而言，聯盟內外的組織以相同的頻率採取以問題為核心的變革導向和以優勢為基礎的變革導向。與專業人士相比，聯盟僅輕微傾向於增強社群成員的能力，與改變青少年個人相比，聯盟更傾向於改變社群。最出乎意料的是，與非聯盟成員相比，YVP聯盟成員更多地採取三級預防（反應性/康復性），而不是一級預防。

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The number of different YVP strategies implemented increased over five years from mainly positive youth development and education interventions to those strategies plus mentoring, youth activities, events and programs, and counseling youth. Network analysis reveals dense initial collaboration with no critical gatekeepers and coalition participants more central to the city-wide organizational network. Coalition participation and total network collaboration declined in Years 3–5. Youth violence arrests and court referrals also declined. The coalition was marginally involved in successful community-collaborative, school-based interventions and other strategies adopted, and it disbanded a year after federal funding ended. Despite, or possibly due to, both national and local government participation, the coalition missed opportunities to engage in collective advocacy for local YVP policy changes. Coalitions should help nonprofit and public organizations develop more effective change orientations and implement commensurate strategies at the community level.

五年來，YVP實施不同的策略數量有所增加，從最初的積極的青年發展和教育干預，到後來增加了導師輔導、青年活動、重要事件和主題活動，以及為青年提供諮詢服務。網路分析顯示，最初的合作非常密集，沒有明顯的中心節點，聯盟參與者在全市範圍內的組織網路中佔據了更為核心的位置。然而，在第三至第五年，聯盟的參與度和網絡合作總量都有所下降。與此同時，青少年暴力案件的逮捕率和法院轉介率也有所下降。該聯盟在社群合作、學校為基礎的干預措施以及其他成功實施的策略中扮演著邊緣的角色，並在聯邦資助結束一年後解散。儘管有國家和地方政府的參與，或者說可能正是由於國家和地方政府的參與，該聯盟錯失了集體倡導地方青少年暴力預防計劃政策變革的機會。聯盟應幫助非營利組織和公共組織制定更有效的變革方向，並在社群層面實施相應的戰略。

Redlining, Concentrated Disadvantage, and Crime: The Effects of Discriminatory Government Policies on Urban Violent Crime

紅線政策、集中劣勢和犯罪：歧視性政府政策對城市暴力犯罪的影響

Richard Powell & Jeremy Porter

Redlining and other discriminatory government policies enacted during the first half of the Twentieth Century have had long-lasting negative effects on neighborhoods, especially those inhabited by people of color. This study attempts to link the practice of redlining to current-day indicators of neighborhood concentrated disadvantage and violent crime using spatio-temporal data from Chicago. Specifically, the study seeks to determine whether redlining has been associated with increased levels of concentrated disadvantage since its implementation in the 1930s. In addition, it seeks to determine whether redlining was associated with violent crime, and if that association was mediated by redlining’s effect on concentrated disadvantage.

二十世紀上半葉頒佈的紅線政策和其他歧視性政府政策對社群，尤其是有色人種居住的社群產生了長期的負面影響。本研究利用芝加哥的空間-時間資料，探索了紅線政策與當前鄰里集中的劣勢和暴力犯罪指標之間的聯絡。具體而言，本研究試圖確定，自20世紀30年代實施紅線政策以來，紅線政策是否與集中劣勢水平的增加有關。此外，研究還試圖確定紅線政策是否與暴力犯罪有關，以及這種關聯是否已根據紅線對集中劣勢的影響進行調節。

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The results indicate that redlining was associated with increases in both concentrated disadvantage and violent crime, and that redlining’s relationship with violent crime was, indeed, partially mediated by its relationship with concentrated disadvantage. The findings from this study suggest that to reduce violent crime in urban communities, we cannot simply rely on our current punitive criminal justice system. Instead, policies should focus on reducing concentrated disadvantage and racial isolation by helping economically strengthen severely disadvantaged neighborhoods and by increasing residential mobility for individuals currently living in those neighborhoods.

研究結果表明，紅線政策與集中劣勢和暴力犯罪的增加都有關聯，而且紅線政策與暴力犯罪的關係確實部分受其與集中劣勢的關係的影響。這項研究的結果表明，要想減少城市社群的暴力犯罪，我們不能僅僅依靠現行的懲罰性刑事司法制度。相反，政策應該側重於幫助經濟上處於嚴重不利地位的社群，並提高目前居住在這些社群的個人的居住流動性，以減少集中劣勢和種族隔離。

Homicide and Criminal Maturity of Juvenile Offenders: A Critical Review

殺人與少年犯的犯罪成熟度：一篇批判性論文

Michael Welner, Matthew DeLisi, Heather M. Knous-Westfall, Carolyn C. Meltzer & James D. Seward

In 2012, the United States Supreme Court struck down existing legislative statutes mandating life without parole sentencing of convicted homicide offenders under age 18. The Court’s core rationale credited research on brain development that concludes that juveniles are biologically less capable of complex decision-making and impulse control, driven by external influences, and more likely to change. Closer scrutiny of the research cited in the defendants’ amicus brief; however, reveals it to be inherently flawed because it did not include relevant populations, such as violent offenders; utilized hypothetical scenarios or games to approximate decision-making; ignored research on recidivism risk; made untenable leaps in their interpretation of relevance to the study of homicide, and failed to include contradictory evidence, even from the brief’s authors.

2012年，美國最高法院廢除了對未滿18歲的殺人罪犯判處終身監禁且不得假釋的現行法規。法院的核心理論依據是對大腦發育的研究，其結論是青少年在生理上的複雜決策和衝動控制能力較弱，受外界影響較大，更容易改正。然而，仔細研究被告法律意見書中引用的研究發現，這些研究本身就存在缺陷，因為它們沒有包括相關人群，如暴力犯罪者；利用假設情景或遊戲來近似決策（譯者注：可能無法真實反映現實世界中的決策動態）；忽視了對累犯風險的研究（譯者注：這對全面理解犯罪行為至關重要）；在解釋與兇殺案研究的相關性時做出了不合理的推斷，並且沒有包括相互矛盾的證據，甚至連辯護狀作者提供的證據也沒有包括在內（譯者注：可能導致了對案件事實的不完整或有偏頗的理解）。

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In forensic assessment, a blanket assumption of immaturity based on a homicide offender’s age is not appropriate, as research has demonstrated that in relevant respects, older adolescents can be just as mature as adults. An individualized and thorough assessment of each juvenile offender, including an analysis of personal history, behavioral evidence such as pre, during, and post crime behavior, and testing data more accurately inform questions of immaturity and prognosis in juvenile violent offenders.

在法醫評估中，根據殺人罪犯的年齡一概假定其不成熟是不恰當的，因為研究表明，在相關方面，年齡較大的青少年可能與成年人一樣成熟。對每名少年犯進行個性化和全面的評估，包括分析個人歷史、行為證據（如犯罪前、犯罪中和犯罪後的行為）以及測試資料，可以更準確地瞭解少年暴力罪犯的不成熟程度和預後情況。

Social Support During Incarceration: Predictors of External Social Support for Incarcerated Individuals

監禁期間的社會支援：被監禁者外部社會支援的預測因素

Jean M. Kjellstrand, Miriam G. Clark, Irin A. Mannan & Christopher M. Loan

When individuals reenter their communities after incarceration, they frequently have difficulties in meeting their basic needs. Social support can help buffer some of the challenges reentering individuals face. Research has demonstrated that reentering individuals with close social bonds are more likely to secure employment, experience better mental health, exhibit lower levels of hostility, desist from criminal activity, and avoid recidivating. Although social support is helpful during reentry, incarceration often erodes external social support networks. While research points to the importance of sustaining or building external support during and after incarceration, information is limited regarding what factors may influence social support networks of correction involved individuals.

入獄後重返社群的人在滿足基本需求方面經常會遇到困難。社會支援有助於緩解重返社會者面臨的一些挑戰。研究表明，有親密社會關係的重返社會者更有可能獲得就業、獲得更好的心理健康、表現出更低的敵意、停止犯罪活動並避免再次犯罪。雖然社會支援有助於重返社會，但監禁往往會侵蝕外部社會支援網路。雖然研究指出了在監禁期間和監禁之後維持或建立外部支援的重要性，但關於哪些因素可能會影響參與矯正個人的社會支援網路的資訊卻很有限。

The current study seeks to understand what factors impact the external social support received by individuals while they are in prison. Using structural equation modeling, the study examines the impact of key demographic characteristics, past childhood adversity, mental health diagnoses, and substance misuse on external support individuals receive during incarceration. Participants in the study included 413 adults who were recently released from the Oregon State prison system and were participating in a transitional housing program. Controlling for other covariates, having a mental health diagnosis, having experienced childhood adversity, and being male all predicted lower levels of external social support during incarceration. These may be key populations to target to help bolster their external social support networks prior to their release from prison. Suggestions are made for future research and intervention development.

本研究旨在瞭解哪些因素會影響個人在獄中獲得的外部社會支援。本研究採用結構方程建模法，考察了主要人口特徵、童年逆境、心理健康診斷和藥物濫用對個人在監禁期間獲得外部支援的影響。這項研究的參與者包括 413 名剛從俄勒岡州監獄系統釋放並參加過渡性住房專案的成年人。在控制其他協變數的情況下，有心理健康診斷、童年經歷過逆境以及男性都預示著他們在監禁期間獲得的外部社會支援水平較低。這些人可能是關鍵的目標人群，可以幫助他們在出獄前加強外部社會支援網路。對未來的研究和干預發展提出了建議。

Reentry During A Pandemic: A Pilot Study of Access to Peer Support Through Technology to Reduce Social Isolation

大流行病期間的重返社會：透過技術獲得同伴支援以減少社會隔離的試點研究

Stacy C. Moak, Lindsay Leban & Tina Kempin Reuter

Returning to society after incarceration is a challenging and stressful process, and the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated this difficult transition. Although previous research has identified social connectedness as reducing stress and improving wellbeing during stressful life events, much of this research has not addressed prison reentry, despite the relevance to the challenges faced by this unique group of individuals. Additionally, examining how such support can be provided during the COVID-19 pandemic with required social distancing, stay-at-home orders, and business shutdowns has not been studied.

入獄後重返社會是一個充滿挑戰和壓力的過程，COVID-19疫情的爆發更是加劇了這一艱難的過渡期。儘管已有研究表明，社會聯絡能夠減輕壓力並提升人們在生活壓力事件中的幸福感，但這些研究大多未涉及與這一特定群體所面臨的挑戰相關的重返監獄問題。此外，由於COVID-19疫情期間實施的社會距離、居家隔離、商業暫停等限制措施，我們如何提供必要的支援，也尚未有研究探討。

This study examines the Offender Alumni Association (OAA), a program operated entirely by formerly incarcerated persons, and its ability to provide social support through obstacles created by reentry and the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on focus groups and surveys of OAA members (N = 77) and non-OAA members (N = 41), we find that, when compared to the comparison group of non-OAA members, those in OAA reported significantly stronger social support and less social isolation. Such results strengthen the argument that within-group support matters in providing protection against the impacts of stressful life events. Further, OAA participants overwhelmingly supported the use of technology during times of crisis as a means to feel connected and supported. Findings indicate that technology can support vulnerable groups and protect public health simultaneously. Further, findings reveal important policy implications, as well as arguments to use technology to expand programming during reentry.

本研究考察了罪犯校友協會（Offender Alumni Association，簡稱 OAA）–一個完全由曾經被監禁的人員運營的專案–及其在重返社會和 COVID-19 大流行所造成的障礙中提供社會支援的能力。基於焦點小組以及對獄友會成員（77 人）和非獄友會成員（41 人）的調查，我們發現，與非獄友會成員的對比組相比，獄友會成員的社會支援明顯更強，社會隔離明顯更弱。這些結果加強了這樣一個論點，即群體內部的支援對於抵禦生活壓力事件的影響至關重要。此外，絕大多數OAA參與者都支援在危機時期使用技術，以獲得聯絡和支援。研究結果表明，技術可以在支援弱勢群體的同時保護公眾健康。此外，研究結果還揭示了重要的政策含義，以及在重返社會期間使用技術來擴充套件計劃的理由。

“If We Can Change the Culture, I Hope We Won’t Need to Say Me Too”: Disclosures of Sexual Victimization as a Form of Social Activism

“如果我們能改變文化，我希望我們不需要說我也是”：揭露性侵害作為一種社會活動形式

Kacy Bleeker, Ráchael A. Powers & Vanessa Centelles

The emergence of online social movements, such as #MeToo, has created a unique arena in which both hegemonic discourse and pro-social discourse exist simultaneously. Prior research has found that #MeToo has elicited engagement which negates traditional rape myths and has encouraged disclosure (Andalibi et al., 2016). This is particularly important in the realm of sexual victimization, as rates of disclosure remain largely underreported, due to factors such as self-blame and fear of judgment or retaliation (Starzynski et al., 2005). However, no current research has examined the context of engagement of online disclosures related to #MeToo and whether it provides an avenue for increased disclosure. Thus, the current study seeks to examine the way in which user engagement influences disclosures of sexual victimization.

#MeToo 等網路社會運動的出現，創造了一個同時存在霸權話語和親社會話語的獨特舞臺。以往的研究發現，#MeToo 激起了人們的參與，否定了傳統的強姦神話，鼓勵了資訊披露（Andalibi et al.）這一點在性侵害領域尤為重要，因為由於自責、害怕被評頭論足或報復等因素，披露率在很大程度上仍然偏低（Starzynski 等人，2005 年）。然而，目前的研究還沒有考察與 #MeToo 相關的線上披露的參與背景，以及它是否為增加披露提供了途徑。因此，本研究試圖探討使用者參與如何影響性受害資訊的披露。